ACE 2006:  Microeconomics of Supply


Economical Simplification of a single Business or Firm of any sort - the logic of competitive supply:  The following is an explanation of the implications of competitive survival of firms, NOT a management prescription of how to manage such firms.

What happens to total costs as production levels increase, ceteris paribus?  The ONLY things which we are changing in this analysis are the level of output (production) of the firm (and thus the level of inputs and resources that are needed to produce more output).  The costs of the inputs per unit are held fixed and constant.  The technology available is fixed.  The quality and productivity of the inputs are given and known, and unchanging.  The quality of the product is fixed.

Summary: Fixed costs are those costs (including all relevant opportunity costs) which do not vary as the quantity produced varies.  Variable costs are those costs which do vary as production quantities change (increase as output is increased).  Total costs equal fixed costs plus variable costs. The general shape will look pretty much like this, for any production process we care to think of.
Unit Costs - costs per unit produced:
Summary of Costs per unit produced:

 
 




Maximising Profits - stylised illustration of the firms cost curves:

To maximise profits ( = total revenues minus total costs): produce at that output level at which marginal cost equals marginal revenue. So long as the MC curve is rising, this will mean that all previous units of output cost less to produce than they earn in revenue, and any greater level of output will cost more to produce than it earns in revenue.
In a competitive industry (many other competing firms) the price is set by the market  - firms in a competitive market are Price Takers: there is no sense in charging less than the other firms, because this firm cannot produce enough to satisfy the whole market, and if it trys to charge more, it loses sales to other competing firms.
In this competitive case, Price = Marginal Revenue (MR) (the addition to total revenue consequent on the sale of one extra unit).  Hence, profit maximisation involves producing at the quantity for which MC = MR = Price.  If the market price is P, then the profit maximising output level is Q*, at which point MC = MR.
At this point, Average cost = C*, so that total cost = C* x Q*, while total revenues = P x Q*.  So, Profit = total revenues minus total costs = (P - C*)x Q* = the shaded area.
This profit is Pure (Economic) Profit - since the total costs include all opportunity costs, the excess of revenues over total costs is pure or economic profit over and above the returns necessary to cover all costs.  NOTICE - this Price = MC rule is the logical outcome of a firm's competitive behaviour, NOT a prescription for the effective management of the firm.

If this firm is making pure profit, then other firms will be attracted into this industry to produce this product.  As they do, so total market supply will increase, and the market price will fall (and, quite probably, firm costs will increase as firms try and obtain more resources and purchase more inputs, driving up the costs).  When will this competitive market be in equilibrium?

When Price = MC = Min ATC  (at Ce in this diagram) with no pure profits to encourage firms to expand or enter the industry, and enough to cover all costs, including opportunity costs.  Each of the firms make just enough of a return to be willing to stay in the business rather than doing something else.  The return that is just enough is the return which covers all of the costs, cash costs and opportunity costs.  The opportunity costs measure how much each firm could earn if it moved its land, labour, capital and management into some other business or occupation.  So long as each earns at least this return, each will be content to stay in this business indefinitely.  If prices fall below this level, firms will leave the industry as the opportunity arises, and supplies will fall, and prices will start to rise again back to the equilibrium level.


Industry Supply - depends on:

  1. each firms individual response to price changes
  2. the change in the number of firms in the industry (product producing sector)
  3. whether the situation is supposed to be Long or Short Run
  4. Clearly, there will be greater scope for responses in the Long run (when everything can be changed) than in the Short run, when only some things can be changed.
1.    Firm's response to price changes: 2.    Industry response to price changes (caused by shifts in demand for the products):

Imperfect Competition:  the key difference between perfect competition and imperfect competition is the nature of the demand facing the firm. - Monopolistic Competition: - differentiate their products from those of their competitors (advertising, brand loyalty etc.), but are vulnerable to competition from rival firms for market shares.  

Pure Monopoly:
The same as Monopolistic Competition EXCEPT that new firms CANNOT enter the market to errode this firms market share.
The first diagram above, from Monopolistic Competition applies to Monopolists.
Reasons for Pure Monopoly - single supplier to whole market:
  1. Natural Monopoly:  production and supply conditions such that there is only room for one supplier from the whole market - costs are such that one firm can supply the total market more efficiently (lower costs) than a collection of firms (e.g. gas, electricity, railways etc.)
  2. Patent rights over technologies - giving single firm temporary advantage
  3. Monopoly Property Rights over necessary raw materials
  4. Predatory business practices and artificial barriers to entry of other potential competitors
1 and 2 are probably justifiable reasons for a monopoly - 3 and 4 are not, and are typically outlawed, or at least restrained (by patent laws, etc.).
But Monopolists do not always make pure profits because: Natural Monopolies are sensible from an economic point of view - but require Regulation by Government to ensure that consumers and users are not ripped off.
Major Problems for Regulators:


So:  Competition ensures that consumers and users benefit from the lowest prices possible (consistent with producers earning sufficient incomes to persuade them to stay in the business, and competition encourages firms (producers) to stay as efficient as possible, encouraging innovation and adaptation in the interests of increasing value and improving efficiency. Nevertheless, it is an uncomfortable business environment, and we might expect producers to try and protect their own markets if at all possible.


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