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	Simon Vlieger: Battle off Cañete, 18 July 1615

Unlike the Caribbean, the waters of the South Sea were undisturbed by Spanish's traditional European enemies until the circumnavigation of Francis Drake , who reached Callao early in 1579. Even then, for some forty years the Spanish crown and its representatives in the Viceroyalty of Peru remained doggedly addicted to the concept of Peru's defensive isolation, resting on the premise of the remoteness of its South Sea coasts and the dangers that faced navigators daring to reach them through the Straits of Magellan. Dutch seamen who arrived in Peru in the wake of Drake had not convincingly exposed the basic flaws in this belief until they discovered the open sea route around Cape Horn in 1616. Hitherto, the crown's only concession to foreign incursions was the creation of the Armada del Mar del Sur to transport crown silver to Panama, but also to offer a measure of protection especially to Callao and coasts to the south. However, after the defeat of the Peruvian maritime squadron in a naval battle at Cañete in 1615, viceroys in Peru tentatively began to construct fortifications on land at Callao, with the aim also of protecting the nearby capital Lima. During the remainder of the century, the operations of the Armada and the expansion of fortifications at Callao, and later at Lima itself, remained the cornerstones of Peru's defence, supported by local militiamen drawn from many walks of life and racial origins, and by an armed garrison in the port. These developments, however, were often only reluctantly approved by a crown forever averse to diverting a proportion of Peruvian silver output into these local needs, rather than supporting the urgent financial demands of Spain's global, imperial demands stretching from Europe around the world. Consequently, with the notable exception of Valdivia whose fortification could not be avoided after Dutch efforts to occupy the port in 1644, settlers elsewehere at Arica, Trujillo and Guayaquil principally relied on local initiative and enterprise to defend themselves against attacks, especially during the lengthy period of buccaneer incursions late in the 17th century. This pattern of self-reliance and local initiative ultimately extended to the maintenance of the Armada del Mar del Sur. Until the mid-18th century this maintained its local origins and identity both in terms of manpower, and more controversially the provision of suitable ships, especially from Guayaquil shipyards. Collectively, these activities contributed to regional identities in regions that later emerged as the republics of Chile and Ecuador, and the distinct concerns and needs of Peru's coastal fringe in comparison with those of the sierra. It also contributed to the consolidation at the heart of the viceroyalty of groups seeking, enjoying and fiercely defending their rank and social privilege through the exercise of military authority.